Thursday, 12 January 2017

Half Adder and Full adder

Half Adder

With the help of half adder, we can design circuits that are capable of performing simple addition with the help of logic gates.

Let us first take a look at the addition of single bits.

0+0 = 0

0+1 = 1

1+0 = 1

1+1 = 10

These are the least possible single-bit combinations. But the result for 1+1 is 10. Though this problem can be solved with the help of an EXOR Gate, if you do care about the output, the sum result must be re-written as a 2-bit output.

Thus the above equations can be written as

0+0 = 00

0+1 = 01

1+0 = 01

1+1 = 10

Here the output ‘1’of ‘10’ becomes the carry-out. The result is shown in a truth-table below. ‘SUM’ is the normal output and ‘CARRY’ is the carry-out.

INPUTS OUTPUTS

A B SUM CARRY

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

From the equation it is clear that this 1-bit adder can be easily implemented with the help of EXOR Gate for the output ‘SUM’ and an AND Gate for the carry. Take a look at the implementation below.

: Half Adder Circuit

For complex addition, there may be cases when you have to add two 8-bit bytes together. This can be done only with the help of full-adder logic.

Full Adder

This type of adder is a little more difficult to implement than a half-adder. The main difference between a half-adder and a full-adder is that the full-adder has three inputs and two outputs. The first two inputs are A and B and the third input is an input carry designated as CIN. When a full adder logic is designed we will be able to string eight of them together to create a byte-wide adder and cascade the carry bit from one adder to the next.

The output carry is designated as COUT and the normal output is designated as S. Take a look at the truth-table.

INPUTS OUTPUTS

A B CIN COUT S

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 0 1

0 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 1 0

1 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 1 1

From the above truth-table, the full adder logic can be implemented. We can see that the output S is an EXOR between the input A and the half-adder SUM output with B and CIN inputs. We must also note that the COUT will only be true if any of the two inputs out of the three are HIGH.

Thus, we can implement a full adder circuit with the help of two half adder circuits. The first will half adder will be used to add A and B to produce a partial Sum. The second half adder logic can be used to add CIN to the Sum produced by the first half adder to get the final S output. If any of the half adder logic produces a carry, there will be an output carry. Thus, COUT will be an OR function of the half-adder Carry outputs. Take a look at the implementation of the full adder circuit shown below.

: Full Adder Circuit

Though the implementation of larger logic diagrams is possible with the above full adder logic a simpler symbol is mostly used to represent the operation. Given below is a simpler schematic representation of a one-bit full adder.

: Single-bit Full Adder

With this type of symbol, we can add two bits together taking a carry from the next lower order of magnitude, and sending a carry to the next higher order of magnitude. In a computer, for a multi-bit operation, each bit must be represented by a full adder and must be added simultaneously. Thus, to add two 8-bit numbers, you will need 8 full adders which can be formed by cascading two of the 4-bit blocks. The addition of two 4-bit numbers is shown below.

Photo multiplier

Photomultiplier tubes (photomultipliers or PMTs for short), members of the class of vacuum tubes, and more specifically vacuum phototubes, are extremely sensitive detectors of light in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. These detectors multiply the current produced by incident light by as much as 100 million times (i.e., 160 dB), in multiple dynode stages, enabling (for example) individual photons to be detected when the incident flux of light is very low. Unlike most vacuum tubes, they are not obsolete.

The combination of high gain, low noise, high frequency response or, equivalently, ultra-fast response, and large area of collection has maintained photomultipliers an essential place in nuclear and particle physics, astronomy, medical diagnostics including blood tests, medical imaging, motion picture film scanning (telecine), radar jamming, and high-end image scanners known as drum scanners. Elements of photomultiplier techn

Structure and operating principles[edit]

Schematic of a photomultiplier tube coupled to a scintillator. This arrangement is for detection of gamma rays.

Typical photomultiplier voltage divider circuit using negative high voltage.

Photomultipliers are typically constructed with an evacuated glass housing, containing a photocathode, several dynodes, and an anode. Incident photons strike the photocathode material, which is usually a thin vapor-deposited conducting layer on the inside of the entry window of the device. Electrons are ejected from the surface as a consequence of the photoelectric effect. These electrons are directed by the focusing electrode toward the electron multiplier, where electrons are multiplied by the process of secondary emission.

The electron multiplier consists of a number of electrodes called dynodes. Each dynode is held at a more positive potential, by ≈100 Volts, than the preceding one. A primary electron leaves the photocathode with the energy of the incoming photon, or about 3 eV for "blue" photons, minus the work function of the photocathode. A small group of primary electrons is created by the arrival of a group of initial photons. (In the example Figure, the number of primary electrons in the initial group is proportional to the energy of the incident high energy gamma ray.) The primary electrons move toward the first dynode because they are accelerated by the electric field. They each arrive with ≈100 eV kinetic energy imparted by the potential difference. Upon striking the first dynode, more low energy electrons are emitted, and these electrons are in turn accelerated toward the second dynode. The geometry of the dynode chain is such that a cascade occurs with an exponentially-increasing number of electrons being produced at each stage. For example, if at each stage an average of 5 new electrons are produced for each incoming electron, and if there are 12 dynode stages, then at the last stage one expects for each primary electron about 5¹² ≈ 10⁸ electrons. This last stage is called the anode. This large number of electrons reaching the anode results in a sharp current pulse that is easily detectable, for example on an oscilloscope, signaling the arrival of the photon(s) at the photocathode ≈50 nanoseconds earlier.

The necessary distribution of voltage along the series of dynodes is created by a voltage divider chain, as illustrated in the Figure. In the example, the photocathode is held at a negative high voltage of order 1000V, while the anode is very close to ground potential. The capacitors across the final few dynodes act as local reservoirs of charge to help maintain the voltage on the dynodes while electron avalanches propagate through the tube. Many variations of design are used in practice; the design shown is merely illustrative.

There are two common photomultiplier orientations, the head-on or end-on (transmission mode) design, as shown above, where light enters the flat, circular top of the tube and passes the photocathode, and the side-on design (reflection mode), where light enters at a particular spot on the side of the tube, and impacts on an opaque photocathode. The side-on design is used, for instance, in the type 931, the first mass-produced PMT. Besides the different photocathode materials, performance is also affected by the transmission of the window material that the light passes through, and by the arrangement of the dynodes. A large number of photomultiplier models are available having various combinations of these, and other, design variables. Either of the manuals mentioned will provide the information needed to choose an appropriate design for a particular application.ology, when integrated differently, are the basis of night vision devices.

Diaphragm Guage

A diaphragm pressure transducer is used for low pressure measurement. They are commercially available in two types – metallic and non-metallic.

Metallic diaphragms are known to have good spring characteristics and non-metallic types have no elastic characteristics. Thus, non-metallic types are used rarely, and are usually opposed by a calibrated coil spring or any other elastic type gauge. The non-metallic types are also called slack diaphragm.

Working Diaphragm Gauge

The diagram of a diaphragm pressure gauge is shown below. When a force acts against a thin stretched diaphragm, it causes a deflection of the diaphragm with its centre deflecting the most.

Diaphragm Gauge

Since the elastic limit has to be maintained, the deflection of the diaphragm must be kept in a restricted manner. This can be done by cascading many diaphragm capsules as shown in the figure below. A main capsule is designed by joining two diaphragms at the periphery. A pressure inlet line is provided at the central position. When the pressure enters the capsule, the deflection will be the sum of deflections of all the individual capsules. As shown in figure (3), corrugated diaphragms are also used instead of the conventional ones.

Diaphragm Pressure Transducer

Corrugated designs help in providing a linear deflection and also increase the member strength. The total amount of deflection for a given pressure differential is known by the following factors:

Number and depth of corrugation
Number of capsules
Capsule diameter
Shell thickness
Material characteristics

Materials used for the metal diaphragms are the same as those used for Bourdon Tube.

Non-metallic or slack diaphragms are used for measuring very small pressures. The commonly used materials for making the diaphragm are polythene, neoprene, animal membrane, silk, and synthetic materials. Due to their non-elastic characteristics, the device will have to be opposed with external springs for calibration and precise operation. The common range for pressure measurement varies between 50 Pa to 0.1 MPa.

The best example for a slack diaphragm is the draft gauge. They are used in boilers for indication of the boiler draft. The device can control both combustion and flue. With the draft, usually of pressure less than the atmosphere, connected, the power diaphragm moves to the left and its motion is transmitted through the sealing diaphragm, sealed link and pointer drive to the pointer.

The power diaphragm is balanced with the help of a calibrated leaf spring. The effective length of the spring and hence the range is determined by the range adjusting screw. By adjusting the zero adjustment screw, the right hand end of the power diaphragm support link as also the free end of the leaf spring, is adjusted for zero adjustment through the cradle. Diaphragm Pressure Transducer

UJT

Unijunction transistor

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Transistor UJT
Electronic symbol
Unijunction transistors
Type	active
Pin configuration	B2, B1, Emitter

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a three-lead electronic semiconductor device with only one junction that acts exclusively as an electrically controlled switch.

The UJT is not used as a linear amplifier. It is used in free-running oscillators, synchronized or triggered oscillators, and pulse generation circuits at low to moderate frequencies (hundreds of kilohertz). It is widely used in the triggering circuits for silicon controlled rectifiers. The low cost per unit, combined with its unique characteristic, have warranted its use in a wide variety of applications like oscillators, pulse generators, saw-tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase control, timing circuits, and voltage- or current-regulated supplies.^[1] The original unijunction transistor types are now considered obsolete; but a later multi-layer device, the programmable unijunction transistor (PUT), is still widely available.

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Types[edit]

Graph of UJT characteristic curve, emitter-base1 voltage as a function of emitter current, showing current-controlled negative resistance (downward-sloping region)

There are three types of unijunction transistors:

The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of n-type semiconductor material into which p-type material has been diffused somewhere along its length, fixing the device parameter $\eta$ $\eta$ (the "intrinsic stand-off ratio"). The 2N2646 model is the most commonly used version of the UJT.
The complementary unijunction transistor, or CUJT, that is a bar of p-type semiconductor material into which n-type material has been diffused somewhere along its length, defining the device parameter $\eta$ $\eta$ . The 2N6114 model is one version of the CUJT.
The programmable unijunction transistor or PUT, is a multi-junction device that, with two external resistors, displays similar characteristics to the UJT. It is a close cousin to the thyristor and like the thyristor consists of four p-n layers. It has an anode and a cathode connected to the first and the last layer, and a gate connected to one of the inner layers. PUTs are not directly interchangeable with conventional UJTs but perform a similar function. In a proper circuit configuration with two "programming" resistors for setting the parameter $\eta$ $\eta$ , they behave like a conventional UJT. The 2N6027, 2N6028^[2] and BRY39 models are examples of such devices.

Applications[edit]

Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the 1960s and 1970s because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just one active device. For example, they were used for relaxation oscillators in variable-rate strobe lights.^[3] Later, as integrated circuits became more popular, oscillators such as the 555 timer IC became more commonly used.

In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of the most important applications of UJTs or PUTs is to trigger thyristors (silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR), TRIAC, etc.). A DC voltage can be used to control a UJT or PUT circuit such that the "on-period" increases with an increase in the DC control voltage. This application is important for large AC current control.

UJTs can also be used to measure magnetic flux. The hall effect modulates the voltage at the PN junction. This affects the frequency of UJT relaxation oscillators.^[4] This only works with UJTs. PUTs do not exhibit this phenomenon.

Construction of a UJT[edit]

Structure of a p-type UJT

The UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B₁ and B₂) and so is sometimes known a "double-base diode". The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B₁ and B₂ are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped; this single PN junction gives the device its name. The resistance between B1 and B2 when the emitter is open-circuit is called interbase resistance. The emitter junction is usually located closer to base-2(B2) than base-1(B1) so that the device is not symmetrical, because symmetrical unit does not provide optimum electrical characteristics for most of the applications.

If no potential difference exists between its emitter and either of its base leads, an extremely small current flows from B₁ to B₂. On the other hand, if an adequately large voltage relative to its base leads, known as the 'trigger voltage', is applied to its emitter, then a very large current will flow from its emitter and join the current flowing from B₁ to B₂, which would create a larger B₂ output current.

The schematic diagram symbol for a unijunction transistor represents the emitter lead with an arrow, showing the direction of conventional current flow when the emitter-base junction is conducting a current. A complementary UJT would use a p-type base and an n-type emitter, and operates the same as the n-type base device but with all voltage polarities reversed.

The structure of a UJT is similar to that of an N-channel JFET, but p-type (gate) material surrounds the N-type (channel) material in a JFET, and the gate surface is larger than the emitter junction of UJT. A UJT is operated with emitter junction forward- biased while the JFET is normally operated with the gate junction reverse-biased. It is a current controlled negative resistance device.

Device operation[edit]

The device has a unique characteristic that when it is triggered, its emitter current increases regeneratively until it is restricted by emitter power supply. It exhibits a negative resistance characteristic and so it can be employed as an oscillator.

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the base region) causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits.

Resistance Welding

Electric resistance welding (ERW^[1]) refers to a group of welding process in which parts to be welded are first heated to the fusion temperature by the resistance of work piece to the flow of electric current and then squeeze by mechanical pressure to accomplish weld. No filler metal or flux is added in this process.

Principal of Resistance Welding.

The principal involved in resistance welding is that when an electric current is passed through the junction, a high temperature is obtained by the resistance of the metal to the passage of the current. The contact surfaces are not in perfect contact and offer the highest resistance and are thus heated up first.

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Spot welding[edit]

Spot welder

Main article: Spot welding

Spot welding is a resistance welding method used to join two or more overlapping metal sheets, studs, projections, electrical wiring hangers, some heat exchanger fins, and some tubing. Usually power sources and welding equipment are sized to the specific thickness and material being welded together. The thickness is limited by the output of the welding power source and thus the equipment range due to the current required for each application. Care is taken to eliminate contaminants between the faying surfaces. Usually, two copper electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. When the current is passed through the electrodes to the sheets, heat is generated due to the higher electrical resistance where the surfaces contact each other. As the electrical resistance of the material causes a heat buildup in the work pieces between the copper electrodes, the rising temperature causes a rising resistance, and results in a molten pool contained most of the time between the electrodes. As the heat dissipates throughout the workpiece in less than a second (resistance welding time is generally programmed as a quantity of AC cycles or milliseconds) the molten or plastic state grows to meet the welding tips. When the current is stopped the copper tips cool the spot weld, causing the metal to solidify under pressure. The water cooled copper electrodes remove the surface heat quickly, accelerating the solidification of the metal, since copper is an excellent conductor. Resistance spot welding typically employs electrical power in the form of direct current, alternating current, medium frequency half-wave direct current, or high-frequency half wave direct current.

If excessive heat is applied or applied too quickly, or if the force between the base materials is too low, or the coating is too thick or too conductive, then the molten area may extend to the exterior of the work pieces, escaping the containment force of the electrodes (often up to 30,000 psi). This burst of molten metal is called expulsion, and when this occurs the metal will be thinner and have less strength than a weld with no expulsion. The common method of checking a weld's quality is a peel test. An alternative test is the restrained tensile test, which is much more difficult to perform, and requires calibrated equipment. Because both tests are destructive in nature (resulting in the loss of salable material), non-destructive methods such as ultrasound evaluation are in various states of early adoption by many OEMs.

The advantages of the method include efficient energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. When high strength in shear is needed, spot welding is used in preference to more costly mechanical fastening, such as riveting. While the shear strength of each weld is high, the fact that the weld spots do not form a continuous seam means that the overall strength is often significantly lower than with other welding methods, limiting the usefulness of the process. It is used extensively in the automotive industry— cars can have several thousand spot welds. A specialized process, called shot welding, can be used to spot weld stainless steel.

There are three basic types of resistance welding bonds: solid state, fusion, and reflow braze. In a solid state bond, also called a thermo-compression bond, dissimilar materials with dissimilar grain structure, e.g. molybdenum to tungsten, are joined using a very short heating time, high weld energy, and high force. There is little melting and minimum grain growth, but a definite bond and grain interface. Thus the materials actually bond while still in the solid state. The bonded materials typically exhibit excellent shear and tensile strength, but poor peel strength. In a fusion bond, either similar or dissimilar materials with similar grain structures are heated to the melting point (liquid state) of both. The subsequent cooling and combination of the materials forms a “nugget” alloy of the two materials with larger grain growth. Typically, high weld energies at either short or long weld times, depending on physical characteristics, are used to produce fusion bonds. The bonded materials usually exhibit excellent tensile, peel and shear strengths. In a reflow braze bond, a resistance heating of a low temperature brazing material, such as gold or solder, is used to join either dissimilar materials or widely varied thick/thin material combinations. The brazing material must “wet” to each part and possess a lower melting point than the two workpieces. The resultant bond has definite interfaces with minimum grain growth. Typically the process requires a longer (2 to 100 ms) heating time at low weld energy. The resultant bond exhibits excellent tensile strength, but poor peel and shear strength.

Seam welding[edit]

"Seam welding" redirects here. For the geometrical welding configuration, see welding joint.

Resistance seam welding is a process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of two similar metals. The seam may be a butt joint or an overlap joint and is usually an automated process. It differs from butt welding in that butt welding typically welds the entire joint at once and seam welding forms the weld progressively, starting at one end. Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes, usually made from copper, to apply pressure and current. The electrodes are disc shaped and rotate as the material passes between them. This allows the electrodes to stay in constant contact with the material to make long continuous welds. The electrodes may also move or assist the movement of the material.

A transformer supplies energy to the weld joint in the form of low voltage, high current AC power. The joint of the work piece has high electrical resistance relative to the rest of the circuit and is heated to its melting point by the current. The semi-molten surfaces are pressed together by the welding pressure that creates a fusion bond, resulting in a uniformly welded structure. Most seam welders use water cooling through the electrode, transformer and controller assemblies due to the heat generated. Seam welding produces an extremely durable weld because the joint is forged due to the heat and pressure applied. A properly welded joint formed by resistance welding is typically stronger than the material from which it is formed.

A common use of seam welding is during the manufacture of round or rectangular steel tubing. Seam welding has been used to manufacture steel beverage cans but is no longer used for this as modern beverage cans are seamless aluminum.

There are two modes for seam welding: Intermittent and continuous. In intermittent seam welding, the wheels advance to the desired position and stop to make each weld. This process continues until the desired length of the weld is reached. In continuous seam welding, the wheels continue to roll as each weld is made.

Low-frequency Electric resistance welding[edit]

Low-frequency electric resistance welding, LF-ERW, is an obsolete method of welding seams in oil and gas pipelines. It was phased out in the 1970s but as of 2015 some pipelines built with this method remained in service.^[2]

Electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe is manufactured by cold-forming a sheet of steel into a cylindrical shape. Current is then passed between the two edges of the steel to heat the steel to a point at which the edges are forced together to form a bond without the use of welding filler material. Initially this manufacturing process used low frequency A.C. current to heat the edges. This low frequency process was used from the 1920s until 1970. In 1970, the low frequency process was superseded by a high frequency ERW process which produced a higher quality weld.

Over time, the welds of low frequency ERW pipe was found to be susceptible to selective seam corrosion, hook cracks, and inadequate bonding of the seams, so low frequency ERW is no longer used to manufacture pipe. The high frequency process is still being used to manufacture pipe for use in new pipeline construction.^[3]

Other methods[edit]

Other ERW methods include flash welding, resistance projection welding, and upset welding.^[4]

References[edit]

Jump up^ "What is ERW Pipe". HYSP Steel Pipe.
Jump up^ Elizabeth Douglass (January 22, 2015). "Ruptured Yellowstone Oil Pipeline Was Built With Faulty Welding in 1950s Poor safety, defects may have added risks to pipeline that spilled up to 40,000 gallons of oil into the Yellowstone River.". InsideClimate News. InsideClimate News. Retrieved January 25, 2015.
Jump up^ "Fact Sheet: Pipe Manufacturing Process". primis.phmsa.dot.gov. U.S. Department of Transportation, Pipeline & Hazardous Materials Safety Administration. Retrieved January 25, 2015. Over time, the welds of low frequency ERW pipe was found to be susceptible to selective seam corrosion, hook cracks, and inadequate bonding of the seams, so low frequency ERW is no longer used to manufacture pipe.
Jump up^ Weman 2003, pp. 80–84.

sarilladharani.